to irrigation. Man was in the ascendancy. The Shang people had believed in Ti, the tribal “Lord,” who was the greatest ancestor and the supreme deity who protected them in battles, sanctioned their undertakings, and sent them rewards and punishments. During the Chou, however, Ti was gradually supplanted by Heaven (T’ien) as the supreme spiritual reality. … Religious sacrifices continued to play a great role in the lives of the people; the meaning of sacrifice however was changing from a magical to an ethical one; that is, from ways to placate spiritual beings to pure expressions of reverence. It was in this atmosphere that the so-called Hundred Schools of Thought emerged (6th-3rd centuries BC)
Periods of development of Chinese philosophy
The classical – the Neo-Taoist and Buddhist – Neo-Confucian – the modern
In the classical period (6th-3rd centuries BC), the chief concepts were Tao (“the Way”), te (“virtue”), jen (“humanity, love”), i (“righteousness”), t’ien (“heaven”), and yin-yang (cosmic elements of tranquility and activity, or weakness and strength, respectively).
… To Confucius, Tao is the Way of man, the Way of ancient sage-kings, and the Way of virtue. To Lao-tzu, however, Tao is the Way of Nature. His concept was so unique that his school later came to be called the Taoist school. For all schools, Tao possesses the two aspects of Yin and Yang; the Tao endowed in man is his virtue; and the greatest virtues, especially for the Confucianists, are jen (仁) and i (义). Clearly, some concepts are ethical and others metaphysical.
In the Neo-Taoist and Buddhist period (3rd-9th centuries AD), there was a radical turn to strictly metaphysical concepts. Going beyond Lao-tzu’s characterization of Tao as Nonbeing, the Neo-Taoists concentrated on the question of whether Ultimate Reality is Being or Nonbeing and whether the Principle (li) underlying a thing was universal or particular.
Under their influence, early Chinese Buddhist philosophers directed their attention chiefly to Being and Nonbeing. Subsequently, Buddhist schools introduced from India were divided into corresponding categories, viz., schools of Being and schools of Nonbeing. The question of universality and particularity, or of one and many, led to the development of truly Chinese Buddhist schools, whose concern was the relationship between principle, which combines all things as one, and facts, which differentiates things into the many. In the Neo-Confucian period (11th-19th centuries), all ancient concepts remained basic (as they had been from ancient times), but under Buddhist impact metaphysics was needed to provide a foundation for ethical and social considerations. Consequently, traditional metaphysical concepts such as principle, material force (ch’i), Tao, Heaven, the Great Ultimate (T’ai-Chi), and Yin-Yang became key elements in the vocabularies of Neo-Confucianism. It was its metaphysical character, in fact, that made Confucianism “new”.
It is interesting to note that these three periods represent a dialectical movement: the classical period was concerned chiefly with mundane problems; the Neo-Taoist and Buddhist period was concerned with the transcendent; and the Neo-Confucian period was a synthesis of the two. The modern period, on the other hand (20th century), which consists of the introduction of Western philosophy, a reconstruction of Confucianism, and the application of Marxism, does not seem to conform to any previous pattern. Nevertheless, the humanistic interest and the spirit of synthesis are very much in evidence.
Classical philosophical schools
Of the Hundred Schools, the most outstanding were six – Confucianism, Taoism, Yin-Yang, Moism, the Dialecticians, and the Legalist School – which may be said to represent four different ways of life; i.e., the Confucian way of man, the Taoist way of Nature, the Moist way of both man and Heaven, and the Legalist way of neither man nor Nature.
Confucianism: Confucianism is rooted in the teaching of Confucius and his followers Mencius and Hsun-tzu.
Confucius: man is the theme of Confucian teachings. “It is man that can make Tao great,” Confucius said. He taught many virtues, such as filial piety, brotherly respect, loyalty, faithfulness, wisdom, love, and courage. The cardinal virtue, however, is jen, variously translated as humanity, love, or human-heartedness. Before his time, jen had meant a particular virtue, that of benevolence; but Confucius turned it into the universal virtue out of which all particular virtues will come. To him and to his followers, jen is simply jen (another word for man), i.e., it is what a man should be. Significantly, the Chinese character for the word consists of two parts, one representing the individual and the other human relations or society. The ideal virtue, therefore, involves both the perfect individual and perfect society. This is the goal not only of Confucianism but of all Chinese philosophy.
For Confucius the perfect individual is the superior man, or the Chun-tzu, literally son of a ruler. Up to his time the superior man had been an aristocrat; but to Confucius the superior man becomes one not because of blood but because of moral excellence. Such a man is “wise, benevolent, and courageous”; he is motivated by righteousness instead of by profit; and he “studies the Way and loves man.” Confucius’ emphasis was on practice. He left unanswered the question of whether by nature man is good. “By nature men are all alike,” he said, “but through practice they become different.”
Confucius’ two immediate followers
The unanswered question led to a diametric opposition between his two major followers, Mencius (孟子, c. 372-c. 289 BC) and Hsun-tzu (筍子, ca 313-238 BC). Mencius maintained that man’s nature is originally good, for he said that everyone has in him the “four beginnings”: humanity (jen), righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. Therefore, man possesses the innate knowledge of the good and the innate ability to do good. This, he argued, can be seen in that fact that a child naturally loves his parents and that a man instinctively rushes to save a child about to fall into a well. All moral qualities are inborn and not drilled in from the outside. “All things are complete in oneself,” he said. If a person develops his original nature and fully exercises his original mind, he can become a sage. If he does evil, it is not due to his original nature but to his self-destruction. Though Mencius’ arguments may seem arbitrary, his doctrine has nonetheless remained orthodox Confucian theory of human nature up to this day.
Hsun-tzu, however, took the directly opposite position. To him the original nature of man is evil. He reasoned that by nature man seeks for gain and is envious. Because conflict and strife inevitably follow, rules of propriety and righteousness were developed to control evil and to train for goodness. Thus, goodness is acquired through artificial efforts, whereas Mencius called for the development of nature, Hsun-tzu called for its control.
….
- From the New Encyclopedia Britannica in 30 volumes, Macropedia volume 4, Knowledge in Depth 15th edition